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    • Psychology SL/HL >
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      • Biological Approach >
        • Brain and Behaviour
        • Hormones and Pheromones
        • Genetics and Evolution
        • HL Animal Research
      • Sociocultural Approach >
        • Individual and the group
        • Cultural Origins
        • Cultural Influences
        • HL Globalization
      • Cognitive Approach >
        • Cognitive Processing
        • Reliability of Cognitive Processes
        • Emotion and Cognition
        • HL Digital World
      • B. Human Relationships >
        • Personal Relationships
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        • Developing as a Learner
        • Developing an Identity
      • Studies >
        • Biological Approach
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        • Cognitive Approach
        • B. Human Relationships
        • D. Developmental
    • Chemistry SL/HL >
      • Tips & Guide
      • All Vocab Definitions
      • ALL EQUATIONS
      • Unit 1,2 & 12
      • Unit 3 &13
      • Unit 4 &14
      • Unit 5,6,7 & 15,16,17
      • Unit 8 & 18
      • Unit 9 & 19
      • Unit 10 & 20
      • Unit 11 & 21
      • Option D: Medicinal Chemistry >
        • D.1 PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS AND DRUG ACTION
        • D.2 Aspirin and penicillin
        • D.3 Opiates
        • D.4 pH Regulation of the Stomach
        • D.5 Antiviral Medications
        • D.6 Environmental impact of some medications
        • D.7 Taxol- A Chiral Auxiliary Case Study
        • D.8 Nuclear Medicine
        • D.9 Drug Detection and Analysis
    • Biology SL >
      • Tips & Guides
      • TOPIC 1: CELL BIOLOGY >
        • 1.1 Introduction to cells
        • 1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells
        • 1.3 Membrane Structure
        • 1.4 Membrane Transport
        • 1.5 Origin of Cells
        • 1.6 Cell Division
      • TOPIC 2: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY >
        • 2.1 Molecules to metabolism
        • 2.2 Water
        • 2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids
        • 2.4 Proteins
        • 2.5 Enzymes
        • 2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA
        • 2.7 DNA Replications, Transcription and Translation
        • 2.8 Cell Respiration
        • 2.9 Photosynthesis
      • Topic 3: Genetics >
        • 3.1 Genes
        • 3.2 Chromosomes
        • 3.3 Meiosis
        • 3.4 Inheritance
        • 3.5 Genetic Modification and Biotechnology
      • Topic 4: Ecology >
        • 4.1: Species, Communities and Ecosystems
        • 4.2 Energy Flow
        • 4.3 Carbon Cycling
        • 4.4 Climate Change
      • Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity >
        • 5.1 Evidence for evolution
        • 5.2 Natural Selection
        • 5.3 Classification and Biodiversity
        • 5.4 Cladistics
      • Topic 6: Human Physiology >
        • 6.1 Digestive System
        • 6.2 The blood system
        • 6.3 Defense against infectious disease
        • 6.4 Gas Exchange
        • 6.5 Neurons and Synapses
        • 6.6 Hormones, Homeostasis and Reproduction
    • Physics SL >
      • Must-have Resources
      • Full Study Resources
      • Other Resources
      • Tips & Guide
      • IA, Lab Report
      • Topic 1: Measurements & Uncertainties
      • TOPIC 2: MECHANICS
      • TOPIC ​3: THERMAL PHYSICS
      • Topic 4: Waves
      • Topic 5: Electricity & Magnetism
      • Topic 6: Circular Motion & Gravitation
      • Topic 7: Atomic, Nuclear, & Particle Physics
      • Topic 8: Energy Production
      • Option D: Astrophysics
    • Geography SL/HL >
      • Tips & guide
      • Unit 1: Changing population
      • Unit 2: Global climate—vulnerability and resilience
      • Unit 3: Global resource consumption and security
      • Unit 4: Power, Places and Networks
      • Unit 5: Human Development and Diversity
      • Unit 6: Global Risks and Resillience
      • Option A: Freshwater
      • Option B: Ocean and Coastal Margins
      • Option C: Extreme Environments
      • Option E: Leisure, tourism and sport
    • Business SL/HL(pending) >
      • Tips & guides
      • Unit 1: Business Organization and Movement >
        • 1.1 Nature of Business
        • 1.2 Types of Organizations
        • 1.3 Organizational objectives
        • 1.4 Stakeholders
        • 1.5 External Environment
        • 1.6 Growth and evolution
      • Unit 2: Human Resource Management >
        • 2.1 The functions and evolution of human resource management
        • 2.2 Organizational structure
        • 2.3 Leadership and management
        • 2.4 Motivation
      • Unit 3: Finance and Accounts >
        • 3.1 Sources of Finance
        • 3.2 Costs and Revenues
        • 3.3 Break-even analysis
        • 3.4 Final accounts
        • 3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis
        • 3.7 cash flow
      • Unit 4: Marketing >
        • 4.1 The role of marketing
        • 4.2 Marketing Planning
        • 4.4 Market Research
        • 4.5 The four ps
        • 4.8 E-commerce
      • Unit 5: Operations Management >
        • 5.1 The role of operations Management
        • 5.2 Production methods
        • 5.4 Locations
    • Economics SL/HL (pending) >
      • Tips & guides
      • MICROECONOMICS >
        • 1.1 Competitive Markets: Demand and Supply
      • macroeconomics
    • Chinese B SL >
      • Oral Example
    • Extended Essay (EE) >
      • General Tips
      • Physics EE
    • Internal Assessment (IA) >
      • General Tips
    • Theory of Knowledge >
      • Essay Example
      • Presentation Example
    • Other notes >
      • Topic 1: Measurements and Uncertainties
      • Topic 2: Mechanics
      • Topic 3: Thermal Physics
      • Topic 4: Waves
      • Topic 5: Electricity and Magnetism
      • Topic 6: Circular Motion and Gravitation
      • Topic 7: Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics
      • Topic 8: Energy Production
      • Option D: Astrophysics
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2.1 MOLECULES TO METABOLISM

2.1 Syllabus
Picture

U1. Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved

-Many molecules r important in living organisms including water simply, but most varied and complex molecules are nucleic acids and proteins.
          → Nucleic acids comprise DNA and RNA (are chemicals used to make genes)
          → Proteins astonishingly varied in structure and carry out huge range of tasks within the cell including controlling chemical reactions of cell by acting as enzymes.
-Molecular biology is a field of study that focuses on investigating biological activity at a molecular level
  • This includes elucidating the structure and function of chemical substances and determining their interactions as parts of living processes

-Biological processes are tightly regulated by enzymes, whose expression is controlled by gene activation (DNA)
  • Changes in activity are typically determined by signaling molecules (either endogenous or exogenous in origin)

U2. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable compounds to exist

Organic Compounds
An organic compound is a compound that contains carbon and is found in living things
  • Exceptions include carbides (e.g. CaC2), carbonates (CO32–), oxides of carbon (CO, CO2) and cyanides (CN–)  
 
Carbon – 15th most abundant element on Earth (can be used to make huge range
-Carbon forms the basis of organic life due to its ability to form large and complex molecules via covalent bonding
-Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds (strongest types of bond between atoms so table molecules based on carbon can be produced), with bonds between carbon atoms being particularly stable (catenation). It’s formed when 2 adjacent atoms share pair of electrons with one electron contributed by each atom.
  • These properties allow carbon to form a wide variety of organic compounds that are chemically stable
-Carbon atoms can bond with just one other element, such as hydrogen in methane
​

U3. Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids proteins and nucleic acids

Main Classes of Carbon Compounds
There are four principle groups of organic compounds that contribute to much of the structure and function of a cell
1. Carbohydrates
  • Most abundant organic compound found in nature, composed primarily of C,H and O atoms in a common ratio – (CH2O)n 
  • Principally function as a source of energy (and as a short-term energy storage option)
2. Lipids- Insoluble in water
  • Non-polar, hydrophobic molecules which may come in a variety of forms (simple, complex or derived)
  • Lipids serve as a major component of cell membranes (phospholipids and cholesterol)
3. Nucleic Acids-Subunits called nucleotides / Two types: DNA and RNA
  • Genetic material of all cells and determines the inherited features of an organism
  • DNA functions as a master code for protein assembly, while RNA plays an active role in the manufacturing of proteins
4. Proteins-composed of 1 or more chains of amino acids.
  • Make over 50% of the dry weight of cells; are composed of C, H, O and N atoms (some may include S) 
  • Major regulatory molecules involved in catalysis (all enzymes are proteins)
​

U4. ​Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell or organism

-All living organisms carry out large numbers of different chemical reactions and these reactions are catalyzed
     →Happen in cytoplasm of cells but some are extracellular such as reactions used to digest food in small intestine.
= Metabolism: sum of all reactions that occur in an organism
-Metabolism describes the totality of chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life and consists of pathways by which 1 type of molecule is transformed into another, in a series of small steps.
  • It is the web of all enzyme-catalyzed reactions that occur within a cell or organism

Metabolic reactions serve two key functions: 
  • They provide a source of energy for cellular processes (growth, reproduction, etc.) 
  • They enable the synthesis and assimilation of new materials for use within the cell
​

U5. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions

-Anabolic reactions describe the set of metabolic reactions that build up complex molecules from simpler ones. Anabolic steroids are hormones that promote body building.
          →Requires energy, usually supplied in form of ATP
-The synthesis of organic molecules via anabolism typically occurs via condensation reactions
Condensation reactions occur when monomers are covalently joined and water is produced as a by-product

Example: 
  • DNA synthesis during replication
  • Photosynthesis, including production of glucose from CO2 and H2O
  • Synthesis of complex carbohydrates including starch, cellulose and glycogen

Picture


U6. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers

-Catabolic reactions describe the set of metabolic reactions that break complex molecules down into simpler molecules. It releases energy and in some cases this energy is captured in the form of ATP, which can then be used in the cell.
-The breakdown of organic molecules via catabolism typically occurs via hydrolysis reactions
-Hydrolysis reactions require the consumption of water molecules to break the bonds within the polymer

Example: 
  •  Digestion of food in the mouth, stomach and small intestine
  •  Cell respiration in which glucose or lipids are oxidized to CO2 and water

Picture

A1. Urea as an example of a compound that is produced by living organisms but can also be artificially synthesized

-Urea= nitrogen containing compound with a relatively simple molecule structure. It’s a component of urine. Produced when there is an excess of amino acids in the body as means of excreting N from the amino acids.
          → Cycle of reactions, catalyzed by enzyme, used to produce it and happens in the liver. Urea then transported by blood stream to kidneys where it’s filtered out and passes out of body in urine
-​Vitalism was a theory that dictated that organic molecules could only be synthesized by living systems
  • It was believed that living things possessed a certain “vital force” needed to make organic molecules
  • Hence organic compounds were thought to possess a non-physical element lacking from inorganic molecules
​

S1. ​Drawing molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a saturated fatty acid and a generalized amino acid

1. Carbohydrates: are composed of monomers called monosaccharides ('single sugar unit')
Picture
2. Lipids: Fatty acids are long chains of hydrocarbons that may or may not contain double bonds (unsaturated vs saturated)
Picture
3. Proteins: 
  • Each amino acid consists of a central carbon connected to an amine group (NH2) and an opposing carboxyl group (COOH
  • A variable group (denoted ‘R’) gives different amino acids different properties (e.g. may be polar or non-polar, etc.)

Picture
4. Nucleic Acids
  • Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called nucleotides, which join together to form polynucleotide chains
  • Each nucleotide consists of 3 components – a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
  • The type of sugar and composition of bases differs between DNA and RNA
-Nucleotide: Single unit of Nucleic acid

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  • Home
  • IB STUDY MATERIALS
    • Psychology SL/HL >
      • Tips & Guide
      • Biological Approach >
        • Brain and Behaviour
        • Hormones and Pheromones
        • Genetics and Evolution
        • HL Animal Research
      • Sociocultural Approach >
        • Individual and the group
        • Cultural Origins
        • Cultural Influences
        • HL Globalization
      • Cognitive Approach >
        • Cognitive Processing
        • Reliability of Cognitive Processes
        • Emotion and Cognition
        • HL Digital World
      • B. Human Relationships >
        • Personal Relationships
        • Group Dynamics
      • D. Developmental >
        • Developing as a Learner
        • Developing an Identity
      • Studies >
        • Biological Approach
        • Sociocultural Approach
        • Cognitive Approach
        • B. Human Relationships
        • D. Developmental
    • Chemistry SL/HL >
      • Tips & Guide
      • All Vocab Definitions
      • ALL EQUATIONS
      • Unit 1,2 & 12
      • Unit 3 &13
      • Unit 4 &14
      • Unit 5,6,7 & 15,16,17
      • Unit 8 & 18
      • Unit 9 & 19
      • Unit 10 & 20
      • Unit 11 & 21
      • Option D: Medicinal Chemistry >
        • D.1 PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS AND DRUG ACTION
        • D.2 Aspirin and penicillin
        • D.3 Opiates
        • D.4 pH Regulation of the Stomach
        • D.5 Antiviral Medications
        • D.6 Environmental impact of some medications
        • D.7 Taxol- A Chiral Auxiliary Case Study
        • D.8 Nuclear Medicine
        • D.9 Drug Detection and Analysis
    • Biology SL >
      • Tips & Guides
      • TOPIC 1: CELL BIOLOGY >
        • 1.1 Introduction to cells
        • 1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells
        • 1.3 Membrane Structure
        • 1.4 Membrane Transport
        • 1.5 Origin of Cells
        • 1.6 Cell Division
      • TOPIC 2: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY >
        • 2.1 Molecules to metabolism
        • 2.2 Water
        • 2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids
        • 2.4 Proteins
        • 2.5 Enzymes
        • 2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA
        • 2.7 DNA Replications, Transcription and Translation
        • 2.8 Cell Respiration
        • 2.9 Photosynthesis
      • Topic 3: Genetics >
        • 3.1 Genes
        • 3.2 Chromosomes
        • 3.3 Meiosis
        • 3.4 Inheritance
        • 3.5 Genetic Modification and Biotechnology
      • Topic 4: Ecology >
        • 4.1: Species, Communities and Ecosystems
        • 4.2 Energy Flow
        • 4.3 Carbon Cycling
        • 4.4 Climate Change
      • Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity >
        • 5.1 Evidence for evolution
        • 5.2 Natural Selection
        • 5.3 Classification and Biodiversity
        • 5.4 Cladistics
      • Topic 6: Human Physiology >
        • 6.1 Digestive System
        • 6.2 The blood system
        • 6.3 Defense against infectious disease
        • 6.4 Gas Exchange
        • 6.5 Neurons and Synapses
        • 6.6 Hormones, Homeostasis and Reproduction
    • Physics SL >
      • Must-have Resources
      • Full Study Resources
      • Other Resources
      • Tips & Guide
      • IA, Lab Report
      • Topic 1: Measurements & Uncertainties
      • TOPIC 2: MECHANICS
      • TOPIC ​3: THERMAL PHYSICS
      • Topic 4: Waves
      • Topic 5: Electricity & Magnetism
      • Topic 6: Circular Motion & Gravitation
      • Topic 7: Atomic, Nuclear, & Particle Physics
      • Topic 8: Energy Production
      • Option D: Astrophysics
    • Geography SL/HL >
      • Tips & guide
      • Unit 1: Changing population
      • Unit 2: Global climate—vulnerability and resilience
      • Unit 3: Global resource consumption and security
      • Unit 4: Power, Places and Networks
      • Unit 5: Human Development and Diversity
      • Unit 6: Global Risks and Resillience
      • Option A: Freshwater
      • Option B: Ocean and Coastal Margins
      • Option C: Extreme Environments
      • Option E: Leisure, tourism and sport
    • Business SL/HL(pending) >
      • Tips & guides
      • Unit 1: Business Organization and Movement >
        • 1.1 Nature of Business
        • 1.2 Types of Organizations
        • 1.3 Organizational objectives
        • 1.4 Stakeholders
        • 1.5 External Environment
        • 1.6 Growth and evolution
      • Unit 2: Human Resource Management >
        • 2.1 The functions and evolution of human resource management
        • 2.2 Organizational structure
        • 2.3 Leadership and management
        • 2.4 Motivation
      • Unit 3: Finance and Accounts >
        • 3.1 Sources of Finance
        • 3.2 Costs and Revenues
        • 3.3 Break-even analysis
        • 3.4 Final accounts
        • 3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis
        • 3.7 cash flow
      • Unit 4: Marketing >
        • 4.1 The role of marketing
        • 4.2 Marketing Planning
        • 4.4 Market Research
        • 4.5 The four ps
        • 4.8 E-commerce
      • Unit 5: Operations Management >
        • 5.1 The role of operations Management
        • 5.2 Production methods
        • 5.4 Locations
    • Economics SL/HL (pending) >
      • Tips & guides
      • MICROECONOMICS >
        • 1.1 Competitive Markets: Demand and Supply
      • macroeconomics
    • Chinese B SL >
      • Oral Example
    • Extended Essay (EE) >
      • General Tips
      • Physics EE
    • Internal Assessment (IA) >
      • General Tips
    • Theory of Knowledge >
      • Essay Example
      • Presentation Example
    • Other notes >
      • Topic 1: Measurements and Uncertainties
      • Topic 2: Mechanics
      • Topic 3: Thermal Physics
      • Topic 4: Waves
      • Topic 5: Electricity and Magnetism
      • Topic 6: Circular Motion and Gravitation
      • Topic 7: Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics
      • Topic 8: Energy Production
      • Option D: Astrophysics
    • Other Citations
  • UNI application
    • United States
    • United Kingdom >
      • Academic Schools
      • Art & Design Schools
    • China
    • Japan
    • Hong Kong
    • Canada (pending)
    • Australia (pending)
  • our warm advice
    • academic advice!
    • Toxic Productivity
    • Finding Your Balance
    • Giving Up
    • YOLO?
    • Are grades important
    • Danger of Quotes
    • How to Destress
  • About us