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This is a Quizlet of all the studies in this option. https://quizlet.com/_7qq2f2?x=1jqt&i=1nhhis I recommend setting your own nicknames to these studies so you can easily remember it. I found it really useful when I am on the subway or just waiting around to bring it up and refresh myself on the details.
This is an excel of the studies. The way I use excel is that I will turn the text colour of some of the information to white eg. leave only the name of the study. Next, I will try and actively recall the missing informations. I will ask myself what goes in this box eg. Aim of Newcomer(usually out loud because it helps me think) and then check in the top 'formula bar' in the expanded form(press the right arrow). Then I will change the memorized level to high(h), medium(m) or low(l) so I know what I know and what I can work on. I recommend downloading a copy of this excel, change the nicknames to your own, use the memorized level column and this overall method. |
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*Note that the IB does not require the year of the studies. The year mentioned are just for references just in case you wanted to do some more research on them and find the original paper or other sources.
**These are super summarized forms of these studies
***This is not an extensive list of all the possible studies, these are the studies which I remembered.
**These are super summarized forms of these studies
***This is not an extensive list of all the possible studies, these are the studies which I remembered.
STUDIES OF cognitive APPROACH
Memory models
Glanzer and Cuntiz (1966)
Nickname: MSM; primacy and recency effect
Aim: To investigate the serial position (primacy and recency effect) with and without interference from a filler activity
Procedure: Had a recall a list of 15 items combined with an interference task to show that are processes involved in retrieving information 3 condition: free recall, filler activity, 30s
Results: No delay: pri + rec; Filler: pri ; 30s:pri +worse recency
Conclusion: STM and LTM are two separate memory stores. STM 30s. During filler task, rehearsal is suppressed. Primacy effect is stored in LTM while recency effect is stored in STM.
Landry and Bartling (2011)
Nickname: WMS; letters list
Aim: To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.
Procedure: Saw list of letters that they had to recall while saying '1' and '2'. Letters include s"F,K,L". Then asked to recall.
Results: Exp scored lower 45% vs. 96%
Conclusion: Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in phonological loop because of overload.
Schema theory
Anderson and Pichert (1978)
Nickname: Homebuyer or burglar
Aim: To investigate the influence of schema retrieval of information from LTM.
Procedure: Assigned homebuyer or burglar perspective. Asked to real story, filler task, then asked to reproduce story. Filler task then some changed perspective. Asked to recall story.
Results: 1st recall: recalled relevant info to perspective. 2nd recall: 7.1% more info but unimportant to 1st. Change in perspective affected retrieval.
Conclusion: Perspective is a type of schema. Schema influence, retrieval of information is from LTM.
Brewer and Treyens (1981)
Nickname: Office
Aim: To investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.
Procedure: Participants were asked to in an office. Then moved to testing room, asked to recall everything they remembered about the office using different recall method eg. Free, drawing, list
Results: More likely to remember items 'congruent' with office schema, less likely 'incongruent'. Things ' congruent' with schema but not in office were recalled.
Conclusion: People are more likely to remember things in their schema.
Thinking and Decision making
Albarracin et al (2001)
Nickname: TPB; condom use
Aim: To investigate predictive validity of TPB for people's decision to use or not to use condoms
Procedure: 42 papers (46 data sets) combined in a data matrix; meta-analysis
Results: TPB is a great predictor of condom use. Correlation between intentional behaviour was 0.51. Significant correlation between intention, subjective norm, attitude and perceived contest
Conclusion: Confirms predictive validity of TPB in specific domain of condom use.
Luce, Bettman and Panye (1997)
Nickname: ADMF; choosing a child
Aim: To investigate when people who make chorus involving emotionally difficult trade-off will
1. process information move extensively
2. choose strategies to avoid emotionally difficult trade-off
Procedure: Asked to pick child for financial support. Higher emotional (more background) or lower emotional (less info + told they will receive help from others) Computer program to track the mouse movement and boxes opened.
Results: Higher emotion - spent more time, opened more cells, more careful, avoiding -ve emotions.
Conclusion: Emotional variables needs to me incorporated in models of decision making. ADMF was confirmed.
Memory Reconstruction
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Nickname: Car crash/ Broken glass
Aim: To investigate if memory can be altered by misleading post-event info (eye-witness testimony).
Procedure: Shown recording of traffic accidents. Critical q "How fast were the cars going when they ___?" (smashed, hit, collided, bump) 2nd experiment: watched, 3 condition: smashed, hit or none. A week later, asked if there was 'broken glass'(none)
Results: Significantly higher speeds for more emotional verbs. Smashed more yes.
Conclusion: Misleading post-event info influences eyewitness account of an event. Could be genuine memory change or response bias (gave higher speed be uncertain). Loftus et al(1978) rules out response bias. Verb of higher intensity may cause memory to alter.
Loftus et al (1978)
Nickname: car crash part 2
Aim: To investigate whether verbal post-event info can be integrated with obtained originally. 195 uni
Procedure: A series of slide showing Red Datsim approaching a sign, turn right, Knocked down. Either Misleading information or consistent information in questions.
Results: 41% correct with misleading post-event. 75% correct with consistent info.
Conclusion: Misleading post-event verbal info can get integrated with visual memory, alter it and affect performance on a visual recognition task.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Nickname: Flashbulb memory
Aim: To investigate whether eye-witness accounts get distorted as function of misleading post-event information in naturalistic setting
Procedure: Real-life gun robbery. 4 months later, conducted interview; leading question with misleading information eg. Broken headlight or yellow panel on car (real blue); compared to real police report.
Results: Misleading question had no effect. Recall large amount details.
Conclusion: Reconstructive memories only happen in artificial conditions. Studied flashbulb memories.
Biases in decision making
Kahnemann et al(1993)
Nickname: Peek-end rule
Aim: To investigate peek-end rule on decision making
Procedure: Asked to hold their hand in cold water. With other hand asked how painful. Condition 1: 60s then asked to remove hand. 2:90s but at end of 60s, opened value of warmer water but only by 1°C. Told there was one more trial, asked to pick(repeated measures)
Results: 80% chose the 2nd condition.
Conclusion: Peek-end rule has an effect on decision making.
Kahnemann and Tversky(1981)
Nickname: Framing effect
Aim: To investigate the influence of +ve and -ve frames on decision making
Procedure: 307 UBC and Stanford stuå were asked to make a decision between one of two options, the choice were either risk-averse or risk-taking. And the conditions were situation was presented +ve or -ve but the end result is the same(eg. +ve: 75% 400 people will live or -ve: 25% 200 people will die)
Results: When the situation was framed in gains 59.0% chose the risk averse option. When framed in losses 72.5% chose the risk-taking option.
Conclusion: Choices involving gains are often risk-averse and choices involving losses are often risk-taking
Strack and Mussweller(1997)
Nickname: Anchoring bias
Aim: To investigate the influence of anchoring bias on decision making
Procedure: Asked anchor question: Did Gandhi die before or after the age of 9(low)/140(high)? Asked next how old was he when he died?
Results: Low: 66.7 High:50.1 Participants were anchored to their most recent information. However high anchor is impossible.
Conclusion: Anchoring bias does affect decision making.
Emotion on memory(flashbulb memory)
Brown and Kulik(1977)
Nickname: Flashbulb memory
Aim: To investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events
Procedure: Participants of black and white Americans were given nine events (eg. Death of Kennedy and King Jr) and asked if heard of it. Then write it out and rate personal important.
Results: They said they have flashbulb memories associated with a personal shock. 99% recalled when Kennedy died but less for King Jr, more for blacks.
Conclusion: Shows the link between personal importance and the event is important in creation of flashbulb memory.
+ve
-ve
· cannot measure surprise or accuracy so have low internal validity
· May have social desirability
Cahill and McGaugh(1995)
Nickname: Emotional slides
Aim: To study the role of emotion on the creation of memories.
Procedure: Participants saw 12 slides which were told with a story: either mother and son going to hospital to see father or boy involved with car accident and went to surgery. 2 weeks later, tested on specific memories, MCQ
Results: Original: more emotionally arousing story had better recall of specific details of the story and slides. Follow up: beta-blockers group did no better than the group that heard the boring story.
Conclusion: Amygdala plays a significant role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal.
Other topics: Hormones
Kulkosky et al(2011)
Nickname: FBM in culture
Aim: To investigate the role of culture in flashbulb memory
Procedure: China, Germany, Turkey, UK USA participants were given 5 mins to recall as many memories of public events in their lifetime. Then complete 'memory questionnaire' where asked if they remember where they first heard of the event. Then more questions to figure out extent of FBM and importance to them
Results: Collectivistic culture: personal importance and intensity played less role in predicting FBM compared to individualistic. Chinese deemphasize focusing on own experience so less rehearsal, less FBM. National importance was same in all.
Conclusion: Culture does play a role in determine extent of FBM
Other topics: culture
+ve
-ve
· Good varieties of cultures
· No interviewer effects as used native language – more likely to recall and encode in native language
· back translation increases credible
· ecological fallacy – just because the participants comes from that culture means share traits
· etic
· self-reportted
Cognitive processing in the digital world
Rosser et al(2007)
Nickname: Surgeons
Aim: To investigate whether playing video games results in better surgery performance in surgeons.
Procedure: Surgeon training: moved needle through loops on triangle toys. Number of errors and completion time were indicator of performance during surgery. Questionnaire about video game experience. Then play 3 games(fast reaction and precise movements) for 25 mins and total score used as indicator of game mastery.
Results: Game mastery was highly correlated with less time and fewer errors in training. More than 3h a week made 37% fewer errors and 27% faster.
Conclusion: Video games improved fine motor skills and attention, able to transfer these skills to a new situation. However, tasks were highly specific, low generalizability to other tasks.
Bavelier et al(2011)
Nickname: Sims
Aim: To investigate the connection between action games and decision making
Procedure: Participants who said they had not played video games in the past year either played two action games or simulation game and make decision about a character's life for 50h total. After on computer screen, had to determine where most of the dots were moving.
Results: Action gamers played task faster and fewer errors; can decipher a large amount of information quickly.
Conclusion: Action games can make decision making processing faster.
Kühn(2013)
Nickname: Mario 64
Aim: To determine the effects of prolonged video game playing on the brains of young adults
Procedure: Small sample size played Mario 64 for 30mins every day for 2 weeks. Had MRI before and after 2 weeks. Compared to control who played no video games.
Results: Volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex(decision making), hippocampus(memory formation), cerebellum((fine motor function) had increased
Conclusion: Video games can have positive effects on brain structure.
Other topics: Neuroplasticity
Sheldon(2009)
Nickname: Social Penetration theory on Facebook
Aim: To investigate self-disclosure, social attraction, predictability and trust as predictors of Facebook relationship
Procedure: Questionnaire. When answering about interactions with other individual online to think about the person they talk to the most on Facebook
Results: Perception of attraction drives self- disclosure eg. Number of topics. Increased disclosure associated with higher predictability hence more trust. Supports uncertainty reduction theory. More talk = less uncertainty = more like
Conclusion: People on Facebook initially disclose to the people they like. This leads to more predictability which increases trust, therefore more self-disclosure and then more liking.
Other topics: Communication in relationships
Chou and Edge(2012)
Nickname: Facebook Comparison
Aim: To test the influence of availability heuristic on how Facebook users evaluate themselves using Social comparison theory
Procedure: Survey of US uni students on agreeing statements eg. many of my friends have better life than me, hours on FB, how long they used FB, average time with friends, amount of FB they do not know personally.
Results: More hours on FB more likely to agree others are happier. More time with friends in real life feel people are happier than me. Large number of contacts do not know personally were likely to agree better lives but not happier
Conclusion: More time on FB means more availability so more comparison.
Glanzer and Cuntiz (1966)
Nickname: MSM; primacy and recency effect
Aim: To investigate the serial position (primacy and recency effect) with and without interference from a filler activity
Procedure: Had a recall a list of 15 items combined with an interference task to show that are processes involved in retrieving information 3 condition: free recall, filler activity, 30s
Results: No delay: pri + rec; Filler: pri ; 30s:pri +worse recency
Conclusion: STM and LTM are two separate memory stores. STM 30s. During filler task, rehearsal is suppressed. Primacy effect is stored in LTM while recency effect is stored in STM.
Landry and Bartling (2011)
Nickname: WMS; letters list
Aim: To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.
Procedure: Saw list of letters that they had to recall while saying '1' and '2'. Letters include s"F,K,L". Then asked to recall.
Results: Exp scored lower 45% vs. 96%
Conclusion: Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in phonological loop because of overload.
Schema theory
Anderson and Pichert (1978)
Nickname: Homebuyer or burglar
Aim: To investigate the influence of schema retrieval of information from LTM.
Procedure: Assigned homebuyer or burglar perspective. Asked to real story, filler task, then asked to reproduce story. Filler task then some changed perspective. Asked to recall story.
Results: 1st recall: recalled relevant info to perspective. 2nd recall: 7.1% more info but unimportant to 1st. Change in perspective affected retrieval.
Conclusion: Perspective is a type of schema. Schema influence, retrieval of information is from LTM.
Brewer and Treyens (1981)
Nickname: Office
Aim: To investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.
Procedure: Participants were asked to in an office. Then moved to testing room, asked to recall everything they remembered about the office using different recall method eg. Free, drawing, list
Results: More likely to remember items 'congruent' with office schema, less likely 'incongruent'. Things ' congruent' with schema but not in office were recalled.
Conclusion: People are more likely to remember things in their schema.
Thinking and Decision making
Albarracin et al (2001)
Nickname: TPB; condom use
Aim: To investigate predictive validity of TPB for people's decision to use or not to use condoms
Procedure: 42 papers (46 data sets) combined in a data matrix; meta-analysis
Results: TPB is a great predictor of condom use. Correlation between intentional behaviour was 0.51. Significant correlation between intention, subjective norm, attitude and perceived contest
Conclusion: Confirms predictive validity of TPB in specific domain of condom use.
Luce, Bettman and Panye (1997)
Nickname: ADMF; choosing a child
Aim: To investigate when people who make chorus involving emotionally difficult trade-off will
1. process information move extensively
2. choose strategies to avoid emotionally difficult trade-off
Procedure: Asked to pick child for financial support. Higher emotional (more background) or lower emotional (less info + told they will receive help from others) Computer program to track the mouse movement and boxes opened.
Results: Higher emotion - spent more time, opened more cells, more careful, avoiding -ve emotions.
Conclusion: Emotional variables needs to me incorporated in models of decision making. ADMF was confirmed.
Memory Reconstruction
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Nickname: Car crash/ Broken glass
Aim: To investigate if memory can be altered by misleading post-event info (eye-witness testimony).
Procedure: Shown recording of traffic accidents. Critical q "How fast were the cars going when they ___?" (smashed, hit, collided, bump) 2nd experiment: watched, 3 condition: smashed, hit or none. A week later, asked if there was 'broken glass'(none)
Results: Significantly higher speeds for more emotional verbs. Smashed more yes.
Conclusion: Misleading post-event info influences eyewitness account of an event. Could be genuine memory change or response bias (gave higher speed be uncertain). Loftus et al(1978) rules out response bias. Verb of higher intensity may cause memory to alter.
Loftus et al (1978)
Nickname: car crash part 2
Aim: To investigate whether verbal post-event info can be integrated with obtained originally. 195 uni
Procedure: A series of slide showing Red Datsim approaching a sign, turn right, Knocked down. Either Misleading information or consistent information in questions.
Results: 41% correct with misleading post-event. 75% correct with consistent info.
Conclusion: Misleading post-event verbal info can get integrated with visual memory, alter it and affect performance on a visual recognition task.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Nickname: Flashbulb memory
Aim: To investigate whether eye-witness accounts get distorted as function of misleading post-event information in naturalistic setting
Procedure: Real-life gun robbery. 4 months later, conducted interview; leading question with misleading information eg. Broken headlight or yellow panel on car (real blue); compared to real police report.
Results: Misleading question had no effect. Recall large amount details.
Conclusion: Reconstructive memories only happen in artificial conditions. Studied flashbulb memories.
Biases in decision making
Kahnemann et al(1993)
Nickname: Peek-end rule
Aim: To investigate peek-end rule on decision making
Procedure: Asked to hold their hand in cold water. With other hand asked how painful. Condition 1: 60s then asked to remove hand. 2:90s but at end of 60s, opened value of warmer water but only by 1°C. Told there was one more trial, asked to pick(repeated measures)
Results: 80% chose the 2nd condition.
Conclusion: Peek-end rule has an effect on decision making.
Kahnemann and Tversky(1981)
Nickname: Framing effect
Aim: To investigate the influence of +ve and -ve frames on decision making
Procedure: 307 UBC and Stanford stuå were asked to make a decision between one of two options, the choice were either risk-averse or risk-taking. And the conditions were situation was presented +ve or -ve but the end result is the same(eg. +ve: 75% 400 people will live or -ve: 25% 200 people will die)
Results: When the situation was framed in gains 59.0% chose the risk averse option. When framed in losses 72.5% chose the risk-taking option.
Conclusion: Choices involving gains are often risk-averse and choices involving losses are often risk-taking
Strack and Mussweller(1997)
Nickname: Anchoring bias
Aim: To investigate the influence of anchoring bias on decision making
Procedure: Asked anchor question: Did Gandhi die before or after the age of 9(low)/140(high)? Asked next how old was he when he died?
Results: Low: 66.7 High:50.1 Participants were anchored to their most recent information. However high anchor is impossible.
Conclusion: Anchoring bias does affect decision making.
Emotion on memory(flashbulb memory)
Brown and Kulik(1977)
Nickname: Flashbulb memory
Aim: To investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events
Procedure: Participants of black and white Americans were given nine events (eg. Death of Kennedy and King Jr) and asked if heard of it. Then write it out and rate personal important.
Results: They said they have flashbulb memories associated with a personal shock. 99% recalled when Kennedy died but less for King Jr, more for blacks.
Conclusion: Shows the link between personal importance and the event is important in creation of flashbulb memory.
+ve
-ve
· cannot measure surprise or accuracy so have low internal validity
· May have social desirability
Cahill and McGaugh(1995)
Nickname: Emotional slides
Aim: To study the role of emotion on the creation of memories.
Procedure: Participants saw 12 slides which were told with a story: either mother and son going to hospital to see father or boy involved with car accident and went to surgery. 2 weeks later, tested on specific memories, MCQ
Results: Original: more emotionally arousing story had better recall of specific details of the story and slides. Follow up: beta-blockers group did no better than the group that heard the boring story.
Conclusion: Amygdala plays a significant role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal.
Other topics: Hormones
Kulkosky et al(2011)
Nickname: FBM in culture
Aim: To investigate the role of culture in flashbulb memory
Procedure: China, Germany, Turkey, UK USA participants were given 5 mins to recall as many memories of public events in their lifetime. Then complete 'memory questionnaire' where asked if they remember where they first heard of the event. Then more questions to figure out extent of FBM and importance to them
Results: Collectivistic culture: personal importance and intensity played less role in predicting FBM compared to individualistic. Chinese deemphasize focusing on own experience so less rehearsal, less FBM. National importance was same in all.
Conclusion: Culture does play a role in determine extent of FBM
Other topics: culture
+ve
-ve
· Good varieties of cultures
· No interviewer effects as used native language – more likely to recall and encode in native language
· back translation increases credible
· ecological fallacy – just because the participants comes from that culture means share traits
· etic
· self-reportted
Cognitive processing in the digital world
Rosser et al(2007)
Nickname: Surgeons
Aim: To investigate whether playing video games results in better surgery performance in surgeons.
Procedure: Surgeon training: moved needle through loops on triangle toys. Number of errors and completion time were indicator of performance during surgery. Questionnaire about video game experience. Then play 3 games(fast reaction and precise movements) for 25 mins and total score used as indicator of game mastery.
Results: Game mastery was highly correlated with less time and fewer errors in training. More than 3h a week made 37% fewer errors and 27% faster.
Conclusion: Video games improved fine motor skills and attention, able to transfer these skills to a new situation. However, tasks were highly specific, low generalizability to other tasks.
Bavelier et al(2011)
Nickname: Sims
Aim: To investigate the connection between action games and decision making
Procedure: Participants who said they had not played video games in the past year either played two action games or simulation game and make decision about a character's life for 50h total. After on computer screen, had to determine where most of the dots were moving.
Results: Action gamers played task faster and fewer errors; can decipher a large amount of information quickly.
Conclusion: Action games can make decision making processing faster.
Kühn(2013)
Nickname: Mario 64
Aim: To determine the effects of prolonged video game playing on the brains of young adults
Procedure: Small sample size played Mario 64 for 30mins every day for 2 weeks. Had MRI before and after 2 weeks. Compared to control who played no video games.
Results: Volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex(decision making), hippocampus(memory formation), cerebellum((fine motor function) had increased
Conclusion: Video games can have positive effects on brain structure.
Other topics: Neuroplasticity
Sheldon(2009)
Nickname: Social Penetration theory on Facebook
Aim: To investigate self-disclosure, social attraction, predictability and trust as predictors of Facebook relationship
Procedure: Questionnaire. When answering about interactions with other individual online to think about the person they talk to the most on Facebook
Results: Perception of attraction drives self- disclosure eg. Number of topics. Increased disclosure associated with higher predictability hence more trust. Supports uncertainty reduction theory. More talk = less uncertainty = more like
Conclusion: People on Facebook initially disclose to the people they like. This leads to more predictability which increases trust, therefore more self-disclosure and then more liking.
Other topics: Communication in relationships
Chou and Edge(2012)
Nickname: Facebook Comparison
Aim: To test the influence of availability heuristic on how Facebook users evaluate themselves using Social comparison theory
Procedure: Survey of US uni students on agreeing statements eg. many of my friends have better life than me, hours on FB, how long they used FB, average time with friends, amount of FB they do not know personally.
Results: More hours on FB more likely to agree others are happier. More time with friends in real life feel people are happier than me. Large number of contacts do not know personally were likely to agree better lives but not happier
Conclusion: More time on FB means more availability so more comparison.
Information is mostly complied from:
Popov, Alexey. Psychology: for the IB Diploma. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2018.
Crane, John. “IB Psychology.” ThinkIB Student Pages, www.student.thinkib.net/psychology?lg=8007.
Photo: Levine, Barry. “Now Entering... the Age of Cognitive Marketing.” MarTech Today, 17 Mar. 2016, martechtoday.com/now-entering-age-cognitive-marketing-169117.
Popov, Alexey. Psychology: for the IB Diploma. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2018.
Crane, John. “IB Psychology.” ThinkIB Student Pages, www.student.thinkib.net/psychology?lg=8007.
Photo: Levine, Barry. “Now Entering... the Age of Cognitive Marketing.” MarTech Today, 17 Mar. 2016, martechtoday.com/now-entering-age-cognitive-marketing-169117.